Developing Skills in Using PRA Techniques

Practical 2: Developing Skills in Using PRA Techniques

Course: Ext. 201 - Fundamentals of Agricultural Extension Education

Credit Hours: 2+1

Semester: I (2024-25)

Practical No.: 2

Topic: Developing Skills in Using PRA Techniques

Department: Department of Extension Education, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana

Teaching Faculty: Dr. Lopamudra Mohapatra, Dr. Davinder Singh, Dr. Manmeet Kaur, Dr. Lakhwinder Kaur, Dr. Dharminder Singh, Dr. Lavleesh Garg

1. Introduction to Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is a way of enabling local people analyze their living conditions, share outcomes and plan their activities. It is an approach used by Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and other agencies involved in international development. The approach aims to incorporate the knowledge and opinion of rural people in the planning and management of development projects and programmes.

According to G. J. Ray, PRA is the process of involving local people in the analysis and interpretation of a rural situations. PRA is a means of collecting different kinds of data, identifying and mobilizing intended groups and evoking their participation and also opening ways in which intended groups can participate in decision making, project design, execution and monitoring.

Definition of PRA

PRA can be defined as a growing family of approaches and methods to enable local people to share, enhance, and analyze their knowledge of life and conditions, to plan and to act. It is a methodology for interacting with rural communities, understanding their realities, and facilitating their analysis of their own situation.

Objectives of PRA

To facilitate greater and better involvement of villagers by learning about their perceptions, experiences and capabilities.
To generate information and collection of data for immediate or future use.
To learn about the impact of earlier or on-going policies and programmes and to frame new ones.
To estimate trends and ascertain conditions of the issues at hand.
To validate or cross-check data collection from other sources.
To impart training to different categories of persons involved in the development process, such as from the Government, NGOs, banks, donor agencies, researchers, extension agents, scientists, etc.
To initiate research studies on the use of PRA and to suggest improvements in its methodology.
To enable local communities to conduct their own analysis and planning.
To learn from and with rural people.
To gather information quickly and efficiently.
To involve local people in the analysis of their own situation.
To ensure that development interventions are appropriate to local conditions.
To empower communities to take control of their own development process.

Key Characteristics of PRA

Participatory: Involving local people as active participants rather than passive respondents. The outsider is catalyst, facilitator and convener of processes within a community, prepared to alter their situation.
Flexible: Adapting methods to local conditions and needs.
Interactive: Emphasizing dialogue and discussion.
Visual: Using diagrams, maps, and other visual tools.
Empowering: Building local capacity and confidence. It concentrates on strengthening decision-making abilities of local communities while bringing about changes in the attitude of outsiders regarding their role in the process.

Note: PRA is not just a set of tools but a philosophy and approach that emphasizes the importance of local knowledge and participation in development processes.

2. Historical Evolution of PRA

Origins and Development

PRA evolved from several predecessor approaches including Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA), Agro-Ecosystem Analysis, and Farming Systems Research. The evolution represents a shift from extractive information gathering to participatory learning and action.

1970s: Emergence of RRA

Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) emerged as a response to the limitations of large-scale questionnaire surveys. RRA aimed to gather information quickly through semi-structured interviews, direct observation, and other techniques.

1980s: Transition to PRA

During the 1980s, practitioners began recognizing the importance of participation and the value of local knowledge. This led to the evolution of RRA into PRA, with greater emphasis on community involvement and empowerment.

1990s: Institutionalization and Spread

PRA gained widespread acceptance in the 1990s and was adopted by development agencies, NGOs, and government programs worldwide. The approach was refined and adapted to various contexts.

2000s-Present: Mainstreaming and Evolution

PRA principles have been mainstreamed into development practice and have evolved into related approaches such as Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) and Community-Led Development.

Key Contributors to PRA Development

Robert Chambers: One of the foremost proponents and developers of PRA approaches
Gordon Conway: Contributed to the development of Agro-Ecosystem Analysis
Indian NGOs: Organizations like MYRADA in Karnataka pioneered PRA applications in India
International Institutes: Institutions like IIED and IDS played key roles in PRA development

Case Study: PRA Adoption in Indian Agricultural Extension

In India, PRA was initially adopted by NGOs working in rural development during the late 1980s and early 1990s. The approach gained official recognition when government programs like the Watershed Development Programme and various poverty alleviation schemes incorporated PRA methods for participatory planning.

Agricultural universities like PAU began integrating PRA into their extension approaches in the mid-1990s, recognizing the value of understanding farmers' perspectives and local knowledge systems. Today, PRA is an essential component of participatory extension approaches across India.

3. Principles and Methods of PRA

The effectiveness of PRA depends on adhering to its core principles, which guide the attitudes and behaviors of facilitators.

Core Principles of PRA

1. Handing Over the Stick

Handing over the stick means the authority of investigation is given to the farmers. Best PRA instruments are handing over the stick to local people where PRA is being carried out. Facilitators transfer control of the process to local people, enabling them to conduct their own analysis and make their own decisions.

2. Participation

Local people are not just sources of information but active participants in the analysis and planning process. Their involvement ensures that outcomes are relevant and owned by the community.

3. Reversal of Learning

Professionals become learners and facilitators rather than teachers. They acknowledge that local people are experts on their own reality.

4. Self-Critical Awareness

Facilitators continuously reflect on their own behavior, attitudes, and methods, and are open to feedback and improvement.

5. Flexibility

Methods are adapted to local conditions rather than rigidly applied. The approach is responsive to emerging issues and opportunities.

6. Triangulation

Information is cross-checked using multiple methods and sources to ensure validity and reliability.

7. Optimal Ignorance

Focusing on collecting only the information that is necessary and useful, avoiding unnecessary data collection.

8. Sequencing

Using methods in an appropriate sequence to build understanding progressively, from general to specific.

Fundamental PRA Methods

a) Secondary Data Review

Before conducting a PRA exercise if secondary data on background information are available for the area to be covered, then it may help in describing broad features and trends of the area concerned.

b) Direct Observation

An outsider as a facilitator can directly observe an activity in a village and also observe the effort, skill or knowledge involved in it. This involves systematic observation and recording of activities and conditions to gather firsthand information about practices, behaviors, and conditions.

c) Semi-Structured Interview (SSI)

SSI is a partially structured and mostly unstructured depending on the response of the person or group with whom the interview takes place. This may be of four types:

Individual interview - One-on-one conversations with community members
Key informants interview - Interviews with knowledgeable individuals in the community
Group interview - Discussions with small groups of community members
Focused interview - Targeted discussions on specific topics or issues

Attitudes and Behavior of PRA Facilitators

Respect: Showing genuine respect for local knowledge and capabilities
Patience: Allowing sufficient time for processes to unfold naturally
Humility: Recognizing the limits of external expertise
Empathy: Understanding and sharing the feelings of community members
Cultural Sensitivity: Being aware of and respectful toward local customs and norms

Important: The principles of PRA are more important than the specific techniques. A PRA exercise conducted without adhering to these principles may become extractive rather than empowering.

4. Key PRA Techniques - Detailed Explanation

PRA comprises a wide range of techniques that can be used in various combinations depending on the context and objectives. These techniques are broadly categorized into spatial, temporal, social, and other methods.

4.1 Spatial Techniques

1. Participatory Mapping

This is very useful technique for developing participatory village development plan for natural resource management. PRA team/outsiders can understand the geographical boundaries, roads, water resources, houses, schools and other physical and natural resources of a village easily, quickly from the participatory maps prepared by the villagers.

Types of Participatory Mapping:

Social Map: A diagram depicting village layout, roads, human habitations, schools, post office, temple, Anganwadi centre, cattle, ownership of assets, etc.
Resource Map: Shows mainly available resources such as topography, forest areas, degraded land, pastures, water resources, agricultural lands which are the major elements for overall development plan.

Figure 1: Participatory rural appraisal

Figure 2: Village resource maps

2. Transect Walk

A transect is an exploratory walk undertaken by a multidisciplinary team of scientists along with village people to observe, cross check and critically examine and record minute details of a particular area physically. At the sites, villagers shares their problems and discuss in detail with the farm members.

The team traverses the area from north to south, east to west or from highest to lowest point. The purpose is to get an idea about farming practices, cropping patterns, etc., to get cross sectional view of the village.

Figure 3: A transect walk

4.2 Temporal Techniques

3. Time Line

It is a method of visualizing key historical events and major changes perceived by the villagers, e.g., flood, soil erosion, climate changes, culture, etc. The best informants are the old people of the village. It helps us to trace trends through history and study of nature of change.

4. Seasonal Calendar

To understand seasonal variations in agriculture, employment, health, and other activities. Participants create a calendar showing monthly or seasonal patterns of various activities.

5. Daily Activity Schedule

To understand the daily routines of different family members, especially gender-based time use. Participants chart their activities throughout a typical day to understand work patterns, gender roles, and time constraints.

4.3 Social Techniques

6. Venn Diagram

This PRA tool is applied to represent the role of individuals/institutions and the degree of their importance in decision-making and their performance. In the diagram, the size and distance of the circles from the centre indicate importance of facilities in the village.

Overlapping of circles indicate their inter-relationships and interaction with other institutions. Overlapping may be small or large as per extent of interaction. If the circles are separate, it represents no contact and if they touch each other means information is passing between institutions.

Figure 6: Venn diagram of dwarf planets

Figure 7: Venn diagram of institutional relationships

7. Wealth Ranking

Wealth ranking is a method in which village people jointly determine the relative wealthiness taking into account all assets, sources of income, and liabilities of an individual family. In this method, different socio-economic groups of households are identified including poorest of the poor and other groups.

Criteria for rich or poor are determined by the village people themselves. This tool enables the PRA team to categorize the villagers, as rich, middle class, poor and landless so that correct target groups of the village become obvious.

Figure 8: Wealth ranking

8. Problem Tree Analysis

To analyze causes and effects of key problems. Participants identify a core problem and map its causes and effects in a tree diagram for structured analysis of problem causes and potential intervention points.

4.4 Other Important Techniques

9. Focus Group Discussions

To explore specific topics in depth with homogeneous groups through facilitated discussion with 6-12 participants on a specific topic for in-depth understanding of perspectives on specific issues.

10. Ranking Matrix

Used for prioritizing issues, preferences, or options. Community members rank items according to agreed criteria, helping in decision-making and planning.

Figure 6: Ranking Matrix to Select Trees for a Community Watershed

Comparison of Major PRA Techniques

Technique	Primary Purpose	Key Output	Time Required
Social Map	Understand social structure	Map of households and facilities	1-2 hours
Resource Map	Identify natural resources	Land use and resource map	1-2 hours
Transect Walk	Cross-sectional analysis	Observational records and diagrams	2-3 hours
Seasonal Calendar	Analyze seasonal patterns	Calendar of activities	1-2 hours
Wealth Ranking	Understand social stratification	Wealth categories and criteria	1-2 hours
Venn Diagram	Analyze institutional relationships	Diagram of institutional linkages	1 hour
Problem Tree	Analyze causes and effects	Structured problem analysis	1-2 hours

5. Conducting PRA Exercises: Step-by-Step Guide

Successful PRA requires careful planning, implementation, and follow-up. This section provides a comprehensive guide to conducting PRA exercises.

5.1 Pre-PRA Preparation

Step 1: Define Objectives

Clearly define what you want to achieve through the PRA exercise. Objectives should be specific, realistic, and agreed upon with the community.

Step 2: Select the Team

Form a multidisciplinary team with appropriate skills and backgrounds. Include both men and women, and consider including local officials or extension workers.

Step 3: Prepare Materials

Gather necessary materials such as flip charts, markers, colored powders, seeds, stones, and other local materials for diagramming.

Step 4: Contact the Community

Establish initial contact with community leaders and explain the purpose of the PRA. Obtain their consent and cooperation.

5.2 Implementation in the Community

Step 5: Initial Community Meeting

Organize a meeting with the entire community to explain the purpose, process, and expected outcomes of the PRA exercise.

Step 6: Group Formation

Form separate groups for different segments of the community (men, women, youth, elderly) to ensure diverse perspectives.

Step 7: Conduct PRA Exercises

Facilitate the selected PRA techniques with different groups. Ensure active participation and documentation of the process.

Step 8: Cross-Checking and Triangulation

Use multiple methods and sources to verify information. Compare results from different groups and techniques.

5.3 Post-PRA Activities

Step 9: Analysis and Synthesis

The team analyzes the information gathered, identifies key patterns and issues, and prepares a comprehensive report.

Step 10: Feedback to Community

Share the findings with the community through a feedback meeting. Verify the accuracy of the information and interpretations.

Step 11: Action Planning

Facilitate the community in developing action plans based on the PRA findings. Identify priorities, resources, and responsibilities.

Step 12: Follow-up and Monitoring

Establish mechanisms for follow-up, monitoring, and evaluation of the action plans. Maintain contact with the community.

Common Challenges in PRA and How to Address Them

Challenge	Possible Causes	Solutions
Low participation	Poor timing, lack of interest, cultural barriers	Schedule at convenient times, involve local leaders, ensure relevance to community concerns
Dominance by elites	Power dynamics, cultural norms	Work with separate groups, use techniques that empower marginalized groups
Superficial analysis	Rushed process, inadequate facilitation	Allow sufficient time, use probing questions, ensure skilled facilitation
Lack of follow-up	Resource constraints, weak institutional support	Develop realistic action plans, establish clear responsibilities, secure institutional commitment

6. PRA in Punjab Context: Applications and Adaptations

PRA techniques have been widely applied in Punjab for various agricultural and rural development purposes. The specific agro-climatic, social, and economic context of Punjab requires certain adaptations of standard PRA approaches.

Specific Applications in Punjab Agriculture

1. Cropping Pattern Analysis

Using seasonal calendars and resource mapping to understand the dominant wheat-rice cycle and explore possibilities for crop diversification.

2. Water Management

Employing resource mapping and problem tree analysis to address groundwater depletion and promote water conservation practices.

3. Soil Health Assessment

Using transect walks and farmer interviews to understand local soil classification systems and soil-related constraints.

4. Agricultural Mechanization

Through wealth ranking and daily activity schedules, analyzing access to farm machinery and its impact on agricultural operations.

5. Marketing and Value Chains

Using Venn diagrams and flow charts to understand market linkages and constraints in agricultural marketing.

PAU's Experience with PRA

Punjab Agricultural University has incorporated PRA approaches in various extension and research activities:

On-Farm Research: Using PRA to identify research priorities and ensure relevance to farmers' needs
Extension Planning: Employing PRA for participatory planning of extension activities
Technology Assessment: Using PRA to understand adoption constraints and adaptation needs for new technologies
Problem Diagnosis: Applying PRA techniques to diagnose agricultural problems and identify solutions

Case Study: PRA for Crop Diversification in Punjab

In response to the ecological and economic challenges of the wheat-rice monoculture, PAU conducted PRA exercises in several villages to understand farmers' perspectives on crop diversification.

Methods Used: Seasonal calendars, problem tree analysis, focus group discussions with different farmer categories

Key Findings: Farmers identified market uncertainty, lack of processing facilities, and established practices as major constraints to diversification

Outcomes: The PRA findings informed the development of PAU's crop diversification strategy and specific extension programs for alternative crops

Adaptations for Punjab Context

Language: Using Punjabi terms and local dialects to ensure clear communication
Timing: Scheduling PRA exercises around agricultural seasons to ensure farmer availability
Gender Considerations: Recognizing and addressing gender dynamics in Punjab's rural society
Technical Content: Incorporating technical agricultural information while maintaining participatory approaches

7. Practical Exercises for Skill Development

This section provides detailed practical exercises to develop proficiency in using PRA techniques. These exercises can be conducted in the classroom or during field visits.

Exercise 1: Social Mapping

Objective: To develop skills in facilitating social mapping exercises and interpreting the results.

Materials Needed: Large sheet of paper, markers, colored powders or seeds

Procedure:

Divide participants into small groups (4-5 persons each)
Ask each group to draw a map of their village or neighborhood
Include all households, marking them with different symbols for different social groups
Add community facilities (school, temple, panchayat ghar, etc.)
Discuss the patterns observed in the map

Learning Outcomes: Understanding of settlement patterns, social stratification, and community infrastructure

Exercise 2: Seasonal Calendar

Objective: To practice developing seasonal calendars for agricultural activities.

Materials Needed: Large paper, markers, colored cards or seeds

Procedure:

Ask participants to create a calendar for a full agricultural year
Mark the months and seasons
Identify major agricultural activities for each period
Include information on rainfall, labor availability, prices, etc.
Analyze the patterns and constraints revealed by the calendar

Learning Outcomes: Understanding of seasonal patterns, agricultural cycles, and seasonal constraints

Exercise 3: Problem Tree Analysis

Objective: To develop skills in analyzing problems using the problem tree technique.

Materials Needed: Cards, markers, tape or pins

Procedure:

Identify a core problem related to agriculture or rural development
Write the problem on a card and place it in the center
Brainstorm the causes of the problem and write them on cards below the core problem
Identify the effects of the problem and write them on cards above the core problem
Organize the cards in a tree structure showing cause-effect relationships

Learning Outcomes: Skills in problem analysis, identifying root causes, and understanding interrelationships

Exercise 4: Venn Diagram for Institutional Analysis

Objective: To practice analyzing institutional relationships using Venn diagrams.

Materials Needed: Cards, circles of different sizes, markers

Procedure:

Identify key institutions relevant to agriculture in the area
Use circles of different sizes to represent the importance of each institution
Position the circles to show relationships (overlapping circles indicate collaboration)
Discuss the patterns of institutional relationships revealed by the diagram

Learning Outcomes: Understanding of institutional landscape, relationships, and importance

Field Practice Guidelines

Preparation: Brief the team on objectives, methods, and ethical considerations
Role Assignment: Designate roles (facilitator, recorder, observer) for team members
Documentation: Ensure systematic documentation of the process and outputs
Reflection: Conduct daily debriefing sessions to reflect on the process and learnings
Ethics: Obtain informed consent, ensure confidentiality, and show respect for participants

8. Field Guidelines & Assignments

Field Guidelines for Village Study

1. Preparation of Village Institutions List

Prepare list of the village institutions and voluntary agencies operating in the village and study their functions in detail by interviewing the concerned farmers/persons with the help of given proforma.

2. Discussion with Village Officials

Discuss with officials of the village institutions about their objectives, activities, functions, problems and salient achievements.

3. Professional Conduct

Do not interrupt the officials of the village institutions while explaining the various activities, problems etc.

4. Documentation

Note down the whole information provided by the officials in your notebook.

5. Relevant Questioning

Ask relevant questions concerning the role and problems of the village institutions pertaining to agriculture and rural development.

6. Professional Courtesy

Thank the local leaders, and the officials of the village institutions to whom you have contacted for their cooperation.

7. Family Adoption

All the students will adopt two farm families each and study them in detail.

8. Continuous Engagement

The participation of these families be ensured by respective students for all the exercises to be conducted during the training.

Practical Assignments

Assignment Questions

Q1: List the various agricultural and rural development problems faced by the farmers in the selected village.

Guidelines: Use PRA techniques like problem tree analysis, focus group discussions, and semi-structured interviews to identify and categorize problems. Consider economic, social, technical, and institutional dimensions.

Q2: List the various difficulties faced by you while using different methods of PRA to get the required information.

Guidelines: Reflect on challenges related to community participation, language barriers, cultural factors, technical issues, and your own facilitation skills. Suggest possible solutions for each difficulty.

Q3: Briefly discuss the steps followed by you for developing rapport with farmers and their families.

Guidelines: Describe your approach to initial contact, building trust, understanding local customs, communication strategies, and maintaining ethical standards throughout the engagement.

Assessment Criteria

Component	Weightage	Evaluation Parameters
Fieldwork Participation	30%	Active involvement, interaction with community, ethical conduct
PRA Technique Application	40%	Proper use of methods, quality of outputs, documentation
Assignment Report	30%	Completeness, analysis quality, insights, recommendations

9. Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1: What is the difference between PRA and RRA?

A: RRA (Rapid Rural Appraisal) is primarily an information-gathering approach where outsiders extract information from communities. PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal) emphasizes community participation in analysis and planning. While RRA is more extractive, PRA is more empowering and transformative.

Q2: How long does a typical PRA exercise take?

A: The duration depends on the objectives and scope. A comprehensive PRA for village planning may take 3-5 days. Specific focused PRAs on particular topics may be completed in 1-2 days. The key is to allow sufficient time for meaningful participation and analysis.

Q3: What are the most important skills for a PRA facilitator?

A: Key skills include active listening, empathy, cultural sensitivity, flexibility, patience, and the ability to facilitate without dominating. Technical knowledge of the subject matter is important, but even more crucial is the attitude of respect for local knowledge.

Q4: How can we ensure participation of marginalized groups in PRA?

A: Conduct separate exercises with different social groups (women, landless, ethnic minorities), schedule activities at convenient times, use appropriate methods, ensure confidentiality, and create a safe environment for expression.

Q5: What are the ethical considerations in PRA?

A: Important ethical considerations include informed consent, confidentiality, respect for local customs, avoiding raising false expectations, ensuring benefits to participants, and proper acknowledgment of community contributions.

Q6: How should PRA findings be used?

A: PRA findings should be shared with the community for validation, used for participatory planning, incorporated into project designs, and serve as baseline information for monitoring and evaluation. The community should be involved in deciding how the findings will be used.

Q7: What is the role of visualization in PRA?

A: Visualization techniques (maps, diagrams, calendars) make complex information accessible, encourage participation from illiterate community members, facilitate group analysis, and create tangible outputs that communities can use for planning and advocacy.

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Tuesday, September 23, 2025