Developing Skills in Using PRA Techniques - Practical Guide
1. Introduction to Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is a way of enabling local people analyze their living conditions, share outcomes and plan their activities. It is an approach used by Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and other agencies involved in international development. The approach aims to incorporate the knowledge and opinion of rural people in the planning and management of development projects and programmes.
According to G. J. Ray, PRA is the process of involving local people in the analysis and interpretation of a rural situations. PRA is a means of collecting different kinds of data, identifying and mobilizing intended groups and evoking their participation and also opening ways in which intended groups can participate in decision making, project design, execution and monitoring.
Definition of PRA
PRA can be defined as a growing family of approaches and methods to enable local people to share, enhance, and analyze their knowledge of life and conditions, to plan and to act. It is a methodology for interacting with rural communities, understanding their realities, and facilitating their analysis of their own situation.
Objectives of PRA
- To enable local people to analyze their own situation – understanding their resources, problems, and priorities.
- To involve rural communities in planning and decision-making for development activities.
- To ensure that development interventions are relevant and appropriate to local needs and conditions.
- To empower communities by building their capacity to manage their own development.
- To promote mutual learning between rural people and outsiders (researchers, extension workers, NGOs, etc.)
Key Characteristics of PRA
- Participatory: Involving local people as active participants rather than passive respondents. The outsider is catalyst, facilitator and convener of processes within a community, prepared to alter their situation.
- Flexible: Adapting methods to local conditions and needs.
- Interactive: Emphasizing dialogue and discussion.
- Visual: Using diagrams, maps, and other visual tools.
- Empowering: Building local capacity and confidence. It concentrates on strengthening decision-making abilities of local communities while bringing about changes in the attitude of outsiders regarding their role in the process.
Note: PRA is not just a set of tools but a philosophy and approach that emphasizes the importance of local knowledge and participation in development processes.
2. Historical Evolution of PRA
Origins and Development
PRA evolved from several predecessor approaches including Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA), Agro-Ecosystem Analysis, and Farming Systems Research. The evolution represents a shift from extractive information gathering to participatory learning and action.
1970s: Emergence of RRA
Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) emerged as a response to the limitations of large-scale questionnaire surveys. RRA aimed to gather information quickly through semi-structured interviews, direct observation, and other techniques.
1980s: Transition to PRA
During the 1980s, practitioners began recognizing the importance of participation and the value of local knowledge. This led to the evolution of RRA into PRA, with greater emphasis on community involvement and empowerment.
1990s: Institutionalization and Spread
PRA gained widespread acceptance in the 1990s and was adopted by development agencies, NGOs, and government programs worldwide. The approach was refined and adapted to various contexts.
2000s-Present: Mainstreaming and Evolution
PRA principles have been mainstreamed into development practice and have evolved into related approaches such as Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) and Community-Led Development.
Key Contributors to PRA Development
- Robert Chambers: One of the foremost proponents and developers of PRA approaches
- Gordon Conway: Contributed to the development of Agro-Ecosystem Analysis
- Indian NGOs: Organizations like MYRADA in Karnataka pioneered PRA applications in India
- International Institutes: Institutions like IIED and IDS played key roles in PRA development
Case Study: PRA Adoption in Indian Agricultural Extension
In India, PRA was initially adopted by NGOs working in rural development during the late 1980s and early 1990s. The approach gained official recognition when government programs like the Watershed Development Programme and various poverty alleviation schemes incorporated PRA methods for participatory planning.
Agricultural universities like PAU began integrating PRA into their extension approaches in the mid-1990s, recognizing the value of understanding farmers' perspectives and local knowledge systems. Today, PRA is an essential component of participatory extension approaches across India.
3. Principles and Methods of PRA
The effectiveness of PRA depends on adhering to its core principles, which guide the attitudes and behaviors of facilitators.
Core Principles of PRA
- Handing Over the Stick: Transferring control of the investigation and analysis process to local people, enabling them to make their own decisions.
- Participation: Involving local people as active participants rather than passive respondents, ensuring outcomes are relevant and owned by the community.
- Reversal of Learning: Professionals become learners and facilitators, acknowledging that local people are experts on their own reality.
- Self-Critical Awareness: Facilitators continuously reflect on their own behavior, attitudes, and methods, and are open to feedback and improvement.
- Flexibility: Adapting methods to local conditions rather than rigidly applying them.
- Triangulation: Cross-checking information using multiple methods and sources to ensure validity and reliability.
- Optimal Ignorance: Focusing on collecting only the information that is necessary and useful, avoiding unnecessary data collection.
- Sequencing: Using methods in an appropriate sequence to build understanding progressively, from general to specific.
Fundamental PRA Methods
a) Secondary Data Review
Reviewing available background information before field work to describe broad features and trends of the area concerned.
b) Direct Observation
Systematic observation and recording of activities and conditions by the facilitator to gather firsthand information about practices, behaviors, and conditions.
c) Semi-Structured Interview (SSI)
Partially structured and mostly unstructured discussions that adapt based on the response of the person or group. Types include:
- Individual interview
- Key informants interview
- Group interview
- Focused interview
4. Classification of PRA Types
1. Exploratory PRA
PRA can be undertaken for understanding broad patterns and trends in a rural society. Such exploratory PRA's are quite common to rural life, different aspects of rural life and also suggest important issues.
2. Topical PRA
This type of PRA is conducted with a particular topic which either constitutes the area of investigation by the outsiders as has been suggested by the villagers as a key area to be focused. Its objective is to generate as much information as possible on a selected topic. It is intensive in its approach and can help in analysis of a particular topic at great length.
3. Deductive PRA
This can be conducted on different aspects of village life which can provide basis to have information on themes not directly attempted through PRA. Deductive PRA is especially helpful when used for themes which require tact and can't be directly probed on account of the nature of subject concerned.
4. PRA for Research, Training & Statistics
PRA's can be for the purpose of researching in the form of participation. Its processes and methods can be of a training type for training of different groups of professionals who are likely to use in their field work or for further training.
5. PRA for Planning & Implementation
PRA can be conducted for designing projects and implementing them. It can make projects more adaptable to local needs. If village communities or group are induced in a project right from its initiation, the chance of sustainability of the projects increases through people participation.
6. Monitoring and Evaluating PRA
PRA can form a basis for monitoring and evaluation of intended programmes. A before and after comparison of projects can be undertaken for projects which have either involved PRA methods in project formulation and appraisal or those which have not used them at all.
5. Key PRA Techniques - Detailed Explanation
PRA comprises a wide range of techniques that can be used in various combinations depending on the context and objectives. These techniques are broadly categorized into spatial, temporal, social, and other methods.
A. Spatial and Resource Appraisal Techniques
1. Participatory Mapping
Very useful for developing participatory village development plans. It helps outsiders understand geographical boundaries, roads, water resources, houses, and other physical/natural resources easily from maps prepared by the villagers.
Types: Social Map (depicting village layout, houses, institutions) and Resource Map (showing topography, forest areas, agricultural lands, water resources).
2. Transect Walk
An exploratory walk undertaken by a multidisciplinary team along with local people to observe, cross-check, and critically examine a particular area physically. It provides a cross-sectional view of the village, farming practices, and cropping patterns.
3. Farm Map
The farm map is an ideal tool for knowing the minute details of a farm, its soil conditions, the variations, different crops grown, water management, fertilizer use and yield, etc.
4. Resource Inventory
All the resources available in the village are documented on the basis of interaction with reasonably large group of farmers. Resource inventory include human and animals as well as material resources. Resources like livestock with number of animals, their type and breed available in the village are also noted. Material resources like farm machinery, communication resources etc. are noted under resource inventory. The resource inventory helps in gauging the economic level of the village and the farmers.
B. Temporal and Historical Analysis Techniques
5. Time Line
Visualizing key historical events and major changes perceived by the villagers (e.g., flood, soil erosion, culture). Helps to trace trends through history.
6. Seasonal Calendar
Used to understand seasonal variations in agriculture, employment, health, and other activities. Participants chart monthly or seasonal patterns.
7. Daily Activity Schedule
Used to understand the daily routines of different family members, often highlighting gender-based time use and constraints.
8. Changes and Trends
Changes are imminent in any society. To assess the pace of changes taking place in the villages, a large number of villagers are involved in a group discussion on the pace of change taking place in their village as perceived by them. To note the changes taking place in different areas, each parameter must be dealt at length e.g. villagers may feel strongly about changing social fabric or changes due to modern agricultural practices. In the context of agriculture, it is important to tap their knowledge of new trends in agriculture, changes taking place in the market and discusses with them what steps they have taken to keep abreast and what needs to be done.
C. Social and Institutional Analysis Techniques
9. Venn Diagram
Represents the role of individuals/institutions, their importance, and degree of inter-relationship. Size of circles indicates importance, and overlap indicates the extent of interaction.
10. Wealth Ranking
A method where village people jointly determine the relative wealthiness of families based on local criteria. It helps the PRA team to categorize target groups (rich, middle, poor, landless).
11. Problem Tree Analysis
Used to analyze the causes and effects of key problems. Participants map causes (roots) and effects (branches) to structure problem analysis and identify intervention points.
12. Focus Group Discussions
Facilitated discussions with small, homogeneous groups (6-12 participants) to explore specific topics in depth and gain a detailed understanding of perspectives.
D. Analytical and Decision-Making Techniques
13. Ranking Matrix
A tool for prioritizing issues, preferences, or options based on agreed-upon criteria. Essential for decision-making and planning.
14. Matrix Scoring
In a matrix scoring exercise, different attributes and criteria are listed which are ranked either on the basis of fixed scoring or free scoring according to their relative importance.
15. Gap Analysis
To measure the gap between what is and what should or could be, gap analysis is a useful tool. The actual practices being followed along with the recommended practices are noted. The differences between the two depict the gap. The exercise carried out with the participation of farmers provides them with better understanding of modern technology. It motivates the farmers to ask questions about the recommended practices so as to innovate and improve their farm productivity.
16. Sequencing
PRA methods can be used in different sequences for appraising different aspects of rural perceptions. Much depends on the objectives at hand, the kind of data required and the use to which the data would be put. There can be different ways of sequencing of methods and using them in different combinations so as to increase their efficiency and utility in the kind of PRA being pursued. In case of planning and implementing programmes for the poorest of the poor, the villagers can participate in wealth ranking to identify the groups involved. A social map can be drawn followed by wealth ranking so as to know the poor people, their assets and characteristics. Pie diagrams, mobility map, daily routine diagrams, flow diagrams can also be used.
E. Participatory Learning and Action Techniques
17. Do-It-Yourself (DIY)
The activities of rural people can be appreciated better if an outsider who wishes to understand rural realities does them himself/herself. Do-it-yourself gives practical ideas of the complexities involved in rural activities. Such participation of outsiders in rural activities can often constitute a first step in rapport building.
18. Participatory Modelling Method
Participatory modelling is commonly used in PRA. A participatory model is different from other models. It represents people's perceptions, as in the case of the social map and not the precise physical aspects. Participatory modeling is used for participatory monitoring and evaluation.
19. Systems Diagram
A systems diagram depicts a system underlying village life or that of an individual villager and helps in understanding the mechanism and constraints. System diagrams can be effectively used as monitoring and evaluation tools. At different time intervals the changes in inputs and outputs can be noted down on the diagram itself using colour codes. The major concern remains how with minimum inputs, maximum output can be achieved.
20. Case Study
A case study is a focused study and can be undertaken either for an individual/households/group/community in relation to one or more events or a phenomenon or alternatively, it can be a study of some socio-economic change in relation to an individual household group or a community. The difference between the traditional case study method and the case study method of PRA is that in the latter case it is essentially based on a participatory mode along with the principles of PRA.
Comparison of Major PRA Techniques
6. Conducting PRA Exercises: Step-by-Step Process
Successful PRA requires careful planning, implementation, and follow-up. The process can be divided into three phases, outlined below.
6.1 Pre-PRA Preparation
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Define Objectives
Clearly define what you want to achieve through the PRA exercise. Objectives must be specific, realistic, and agreed upon with the community.
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Select the Team
Form a multidisciplinary team with appropriate skills and backgrounds. Include both men and women, and consider including local officials or extension workers.
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Prepare Materials
Gather necessary materials such as flip charts, markers, colored powders, seeds, stones, and other local materials for diagramming.
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Contact the Community
Establish initial contact with community leaders and explain the purpose of the PRA. Obtain their consent and cooperation.
6.2 Implementation in the Community
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Initial Community Meeting
Organize a meeting with the entire community to explain the purpose, process, and expected outcomes of the PRA exercise.
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Group Formation
Form separate groups for different segments of the community (men, women, youth, elderly) to ensure diverse perspectives.
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Conduct PRA Exercises
Facilitate the selected PRA techniques with different groups. Ensure active participation and documentation of the process.
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Cross-Checking and Triangulation
Use multiple methods and sources to verify information. Compare results from different groups and techniques.
6.3 Post-PRA Activities
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Analysis and Synthesis
The team analyzes the information gathered, identifies key patterns and issues, and prepares a comprehensive report.
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Feedback to Community
Share the findings with the community through a feedback meeting. Verify the accuracy of the information and interpretations.
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Action Planning
Facilitate the community in developing action plans based on the PRA findings. Identify priorities, resources, and responsibilities.
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Follow-up and Monitoring
Establish mechanisms for follow-up, monitoring, and evaluation of the action plans. Maintain contact with the community.
Common Challenges in PRA and How to Address Them
7. Practical Assignments
| Assignment No. | Question |
|---|---|
| Q1 | List the various agricultural and rural development problems faced by the farmers in the selected village. |
| Q2 | List the various difficulties faced by you while using different methods of PRA to get the required information. |
| Q3 | Briefly discuss the steps followed by you for developing rapport with farmers and their families. |